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Abstract
Diskusi mengenai kaitan antara kondisi lingkungan dengan pola penyelenggaraan pemerintahan (governance) mulai menghangat pada tahun 1990an. Bentuk negara modern yaitu negara kesejahteraan yang diadopsi oleh kebanyakan negara di dunia, menuntut keterlibatan aktif negara dalam segala aspek kehidupan masyarakatnya, termasuk pengelolaan lingkungan.
Berdasarkan pemikiran tersebut maka kondisi lingkungan bergantung kepada penyelenggaraan pemerintahan. Berdasar pada keterkaitannya tersebut, kebijakan dan hukum lingkungan di dunia saat ini mengarahkan model pemerintahan yang mendukung pengelolaan lingkungan yang baik. Konferensi PBB tentang Lingkungan dan Pembangunan (UNCED), tahun 1992 dan Konvensi Arrhus, tahun 1998 memiliki landasan pemikiran yang sama, bahwa pola pemerintahan yang baik bagi pengelolaan lingkungan adalah pemerintahan yang memastikan adanya partisipasi masyarakat.
Dengan demikian keduanya mensyaratkan pemerintahan yang demokratis. Demokrasi dalam pengelolaan lingkungan kemudian dianggap memberikan pengaruh positif bagi kualitas lingkungan. Kesimpulan tersebut didukung oleh hasil yang dikeluarkan oleh beberapa penelitian.
Meskipun begitu, di sisi lain beberapa ahli berpendapat bahwa demokrasi tidak serta-merta membawa dampak positif bagi lingkungan. Salah satu alasannya adalah ada kenyataan yang sulit disangkal bahwa peningkatan polusi yang tinggi pada dekade terakhir ini berasal dari negara-negara yang dianggap sangat demokratis yaitu negara-negara kaya yang menggunakan teknologi tinggi yang menghasilkan polusi.
Dengan demikian maka timbul pertanyaan kembali apakah pelaksanaan demokrasi sesungguhnya memiliki korelasi dengan kualitas lingkungan? Pertanyaan ini tentunya tidak mudah dijawab, terutama mengingat bahwa hingga saat ini demokrasi dipahami dalam berbagai macam bentuk hingga prosedur yang berbeda. Dengan demikian, pelaksanaan demokrasi dapat berbeda pada tempat yang berbeda.
Tulisan ini akan membahas sejauh mana keterkaitan antara demokrasi dengan pengelolaan lingkungan. Beberapa bentuk demokrasi akan dijelaskan agar dapat dimengerti bahwa kemungkinan setiap bentuk tersebut akan memiliki pengaruh yang berbeda bagi kualitas lingkungan. Dengan demikian diharapkan dapat menjadi masukan awal bagi kajian untuk menemukan bentuk demokrasi yang benar-benar dapat melindungi dan mengatasi persoalan-persoalan lingkungan hidup di Indonesia.
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References
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- Budiardjo, Miriam. 2012. Dasar-dasar Ilmu Politik. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama.
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- Cunningham, Frank. 2002. Theories of Democracy. London: Routledge.
- Dahl R.A. dan I. Shapiro, J.A., Cheibub, (Ed.). 2003. The Democracy Sourcebook, Cambridge: MIT Press.
- Dalton, Russell J., Wilhelm Bürklin, dan Andrew Drummond. 2001. “Public Opinion And Direct Democracy,” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 12, No. 4, 2001.
- Davies, Stephen. “In Name or Nature? Implementing International Environmental Procedural Rights in the Post-Aarhus Environment A Finnish Example,” Environmental Law Review, 2007.
- Deneulin, Séverine. Democracy and Human Development. http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/Deneulin%20Democracy.pdf
- Febtiasih, Happy Budi (ed.). 2012. Partisipasi Warga dalam Pembangunan dan Demokrasi, Malang: Averroes Press.
- Fitzmaurice, Malgosia. 2010. “Note On The Participation Of Civil Society In Environmental Matters. Case Study: The 1998 Aarhus Convention On Access To Information, Public Participation In Decision-Making And Access To Justice In Environmental Matters,” Human Rights and International Legal Discourse, Vol. 47, 2010.
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- __________ (2). 2013. Hukum Administrasi Negara, Edisi Revisi. Jakarta: Rajawali Press.
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- Li, Quan and Rafael Reuveny. 2006. “Democracy and Environmental Degradation,” International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 50, 2006.
- Magnis-Suseno, Franz. 1995. Mencari Sosok Demokrasi, Sebuah Telaah Filosofis. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama.
- Maksimovic, Aleksandar dan Jelena Lucic. 2011. Aarhus Convention in Serbia: Implementation in Practice Toward the EU Experience of the Slovak Republic. The Pontis Foundation and The Center for Democracy Foundation.
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- Muigua, Kariuki dan Paul N. Musyimi. Enhancing Environmental Democracy in Kenya. http://www.kmco.co.ke/attachments/article/81/072_Envtal_Dem_Ke nya.pdf
- Neuman, Laura dan Richard Calland. 2007. Making the Access to Information Law Work: The Challenges of Implementation, in The Right to Know, ed. A. Florini. West Sussex: Colombia University Press.
- O‟Donnell, Guillermo. 2000. Democracy, Law, And Comparataive Politics, Working paper #274. Notre Dame, I.N.: Kellog Institute.
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- Parola, Giulia. Towards Environmental Democracy. http://skemman.is/stream/get/1946/4606/13289/1/Giulia_Parola.pd f
- Saward, M. 2001. “Reconstructing Democracy: Current Thinking And New Directions”, Government and Opposition, Vol. 36, 2001.
- Schafer, Arthur. 1974. “Citizen Participation: Democratic Elitism and Participatory Democracy” dalam The Allocative Conflicts in Water Resource Management, ed. Dixon Thomson. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press.
- Scruggs, Lyle. Democracy and Environmental Protection: An Empirical Analysis. Storrs: University of Connecticut.
- Soehino. 2008. Ilmu Negara, Cetakan Kedelapan. Yogyakarta: Liberty.
- United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. 2008. A Decade of Promoting Environmental Democracy. Dipresentasikan dalam Perayaan 10 Tahun UNECE Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (Aarhus Convention).
- Urofsky, Melvin I. 2001. Pendahuluan: Prinsip-Prinsip Dasar Demokrasi. Washington D.C.: Office of International Information Programs U.S. Department of State.
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References
Bell, Stuart dan Donald McGillivray. 2006. Environmental Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Budiardjo, Miriam. 2012. Dasar-dasar Ilmu Politik. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama.
Butler, Brian E. 2010. “Democracy and Law: Situating Law within John Dewey‟s Democratic Vision”, Etica & Politica / Ethics & Politics, Vol. XII, 2010. Trieste: University of Trieste
Calder, Gideon. 2009. “Listening, Democracy and the Environment”, In-Spire Journal of Law, Politics and Societies, Vol. 4, No. 2, 2009.
Collins, Linda. 2007. “Are We There Yet? The Right to Environment in International and European Law,” McGill International Journal of Sustainable Development Law & Policy, Volume 3 Issue 2, 2007, 140-142.
Cunningham, Frank. 2002. Theories of Democracy. London: Routledge.
Dahl R.A. dan I. Shapiro, J.A., Cheibub, (Ed.). 2003. The Democracy Sourcebook, Cambridge: MIT Press.
Dalton, Russell J., Wilhelm Bürklin, dan Andrew Drummond. 2001. “Public Opinion And Direct Democracy,” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 12, No. 4, 2001.
Davies, Stephen. “In Name or Nature? Implementing International Environmental Procedural Rights in the Post-Aarhus Environment A Finnish Example,” Environmental Law Review, 2007.
Deneulin, Séverine. Democracy and Human Development. http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/Deneulin%20Democracy.pdf
Febtiasih, Happy Budi (ed.). 2012. Partisipasi Warga dalam Pembangunan dan Demokrasi, Malang: Averroes Press.
Fitzmaurice, Malgosia. 2010. “Note On The Participation Of Civil Society In Environmental Matters. Case Study: The 1998 Aarhus Convention On Access To Information, Public Participation In Decision-Making And Access To Justice In Environmental Matters,” Human Rights and International Legal Discourse, Vol. 47, 2010.
Goreeba, Akash. 2012. Environmental Democracy? Does Anyone Really Care?, EInternational Relations.
H.R. Ridwan (1). 2010. Hukum Administrasi Negara. Jakarta: Rajawali Press.
__________ (2). 2013. Hukum Administrasi Negara, Edisi Revisi. Jakarta: Rajawali Press.
Hardjasoemantri, Koesnadi. 1991. Hukum Tata Lingkungan, Cet. 8, Edisi Ke-5. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press, Yogyakarta.
Killian, Bernadeta. 2007. Participatory Democracy in Tanzania. http://www.redet.udsm.ac.tz/documents_storage/2008-3-28-9-3125_participatory%20democracy%202007.pdf
Kusumaatmadja, Mochtar dan Arief Sidharta. 2000. Pengantar Ilmu Hukum. Bandung: Alumni.
Li, Quan and Rafael Reuveny. 2006. “Democracy and Environmental Degradation,” International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 50, 2006.
Magnis-Suseno, Franz. 1995. Mencari Sosok Demokrasi, Sebuah Telaah Filosofis. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama.
Maksimovic, Aleksandar dan Jelena Lucic. 2011. Aarhus Convention in Serbia: Implementation in Practice Toward the EU Experience of the Slovak Republic. The Pontis Foundation and The Center for Democracy Foundation.
Mitchell, Ross E. 2006. “Green Politics or Environmental Blues? Analyzing Ecological Democracy,” Public Understanding of Science, Vol. 15, 2006.
Muigua, Kariuki dan Paul N. Musyimi. Enhancing Environmental Democracy in Kenya. http://www.kmco.co.ke/attachments/article/81/072_Envtal_Dem_Ke nya.pdf
Neuman, Laura dan Richard Calland. 2007. Making the Access to Information Law Work: The Challenges of Implementation, in The Right to Know, ed. A. Florini. West Sussex: Colombia University Press.
O‟Donnell, Guillermo. 2000. Democracy, Law, And Comparataive Politics, Working paper #274. Notre Dame, I.N.: Kellog Institute.
Parks, W. Robert. Goals of Democracy. http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/17208/1/ar530112.pdf
Parola, Giulia. Towards Environmental Democracy. http://skemman.is/stream/get/1946/4606/13289/1/Giulia_Parola.pd f
Saward, M. 2001. “Reconstructing Democracy: Current Thinking And New Directions”, Government and Opposition, Vol. 36, 2001.
Schafer, Arthur. 1974. “Citizen Participation: Democratic Elitism and Participatory Democracy” dalam The Allocative Conflicts in Water Resource Management, ed. Dixon Thomson. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press.
Scruggs, Lyle. Democracy and Environmental Protection: An Empirical Analysis. Storrs: University of Connecticut.
Soehino. 2008. Ilmu Negara, Cetakan Kedelapan. Yogyakarta: Liberty.
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. 2008. A Decade of Promoting Environmental Democracy. Dipresentasikan dalam Perayaan 10 Tahun UNECE Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (Aarhus Convention).
Urofsky, Melvin I. 2001. Pendahuluan: Prinsip-Prinsip Dasar Demokrasi. Washington D.C.: Office of International Information Programs U.S. Department of State.
Wilkinson, David. 2002. Environement and Law. Oxford: Routledge.